Fevers and Colds|
Dec
23
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
peterhutch asked:
Yellow fever, which is also known as sylvatic fever and viral hemorrhagic fever or VHF, is a severe infectious disease caused by a type of virus called a flavivirus. This flavivirus can cause outbreaks of epidemic proportions throughout Africa and tropical America.
The first written evidence of such an epidemic occurred in the Yucatan in 1648. Since that time, much has been learned about the interesting transmission patterns of this devastating illness.
What causes yellow fever?
Yellow fever virus belongs to the Flaviviridae family, other members of which cause dengue fever and Japanese encephalitis.
The virus is introduced into the bloodstream via the saliva of the mosquito as it bites.
The virus can then be transported around the body and reproduce itself in a variety of the body’s cells, usually the liver, kidneys and blood vessels. In serious cases, these cells may become damaged themselves.
What is the basic yellow fever transmission cycle?
There are two kinds of yellow fever, spread by two different cycles of infection.
Jungle yellow fever is mainly a disease of monkeys. It is spread from infected mosquitoes to monkeys in the tropical rain forest. People get jungle yellow fever when they are bitten by mosquitoes that have been infected after feeding on infected monkeys. Jungle yellow fever is rare and occurs mainly in persons who live or work in tropical rain forests.
Symptoms
The virus remains silent in the body during an incubation period of three to six days. There are then two disease phases. While some infections have no symptoms whatsoever, the first, “acute”, phase is normally characterized by fever, muscle pain (with prominent backache), headache, shivers, loss of appetite, nausea and/or vomiting. Often, the high fever is paradoxically associated with a slow pulse. After three to four days most patients improve and their symptoms disappear.
However, 15% enter a “toxic phase” within 24 hours. Fever reappears and several body systems are affected. The patient rapidly develops jaundice and complains of abdominal pain with vomiting.
Yellow Fever Vaccinations:
The yellow fever vaccine is an attenuated, live-virus preparation of the 17D strain of yellow fever virus grown in leucosis-free chick embryos. A single dose correctly given confers immunity in 100% of recipients, and immunity persists for at least 10 years. Re-immunisation is currently recommended after 10 years.
This vaccination is given as a single injection given subcutaneously. If a country requires the vaccine for entry, travellers must allow at least 10 days before entering the country for vaccination.
Treatment of yellow fever:
Infection should be treated with appropriate antimicrobial therapy and tailored as antibiotic sensitivities are identified
Many cases of deep-seated infection or abscess require percutaneous or surgical drainage
Fever due to malignancy will usually regress with surgical debulking,
chemotherapy, and/or radiation directed at the primary tumor
Rheumatologic disorders may require NSAIDs, steroids, methotrexate, hydroxychloroquine, or other cytotoxic agents.
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Yellow fever, which is also known as sylvatic fever and viral hemorrhagic fever or VHF, is a severe infectious disease caused by a type of virus called a flavivirus. This flavivirus can cause outbreaks of epidemic proportions throughout Africa and tropical America.
The first written evidence of such an epidemic occurred in the Yucatan in 1648. Since that time, much has been learned about the interesting transmission patterns of this devastating illness.
What causes yellow fever?
Yellow fever virus belongs to the Flaviviridae family, other members of which cause dengue fever and Japanese encephalitis.
The virus is introduced into the bloodstream via the saliva of the mosquito as it bites.
The virus can then be transported around the body and reproduce itself in a variety of the body’s cells, usually the liver, kidneys and blood vessels. In serious cases, these cells may become damaged themselves.
What is the basic yellow fever transmission cycle?
There are two kinds of yellow fever, spread by two different cycles of infection.
Jungle yellow fever is mainly a disease of monkeys. It is spread from infected mosquitoes to monkeys in the tropical rain forest. People get jungle yellow fever when they are bitten by mosquitoes that have been infected after feeding on infected monkeys. Jungle yellow fever is rare and occurs mainly in persons who live or work in tropical rain forests.
Symptoms
The virus remains silent in the body during an incubation period of three to six days. There are then two disease phases. While some infections have no symptoms whatsoever, the first, “acute”, phase is normally characterized by fever, muscle pain (with prominent backache), headache, shivers, loss of appetite, nausea and/or vomiting. Often, the high fever is paradoxically associated with a slow pulse. After three to four days most patients improve and their symptoms disappear.
However, 15% enter a “toxic phase” within 24 hours. Fever reappears and several body systems are affected. The patient rapidly develops jaundice and complains of abdominal pain with vomiting.
Yellow Fever Vaccinations:
The yellow fever vaccine is an attenuated, live-virus preparation of the 17D strain of yellow fever virus grown in leucosis-free chick embryos. A single dose correctly given confers immunity in 100% of recipients, and immunity persists for at least 10 years. Re-immunisation is currently recommended after 10 years.
This vaccination is given as a single injection given subcutaneously. If a country requires the vaccine for entry, travellers must allow at least 10 days before entering the country for vaccination.
Treatment of yellow fever:
Infection should be treated with appropriate antimicrobial therapy and tailored as antibiotic sensitivities are identified
Many cases of deep-seated infection or abscess require percutaneous or surgical drainage
Fever due to malignancy will usually regress with surgical debulking,
chemotherapy, and/or radiation directed at the primary tumor
Rheumatologic disorders may require NSAIDs, steroids, methotrexate, hydroxychloroquine, or other cytotoxic agents.
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Andrew Cavanagh asked:
lu could be the greatest threat to modern civilization and the world is poorly prepared for a bird flu pandemic. The rapid spread of the bird flu virus raises the question: what can we do to protect ourselves if a bird flu pandemic strikes?
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lu could be the greatest threat to modern civilization and the world is poorly prepared for a bird flu pandemic. The rapid spread of the bird flu virus raises the question: what can we do to protect ourselves if a bird flu pandemic strikes?
A potential bird flu pandemic can’t be taken lightly.
By taking samples from lungs of exhumed victims researchers at the USA Centers For Disease Control confirmed the 1918 Spanish flu was also a bird flu. Alarming news because the Spanish flu pandemic was a global catastrophe infecting approximately one quarter of the United States and one fifth of the world.
From 20 million to 50 million people died from this 1918 Spanish “bird” flu and most of the victims were aged from 20 to 40 years . This pattern is unusual because influenza normally kills the sick, elderly and young children.
At the height of the Spanish bird flu funerals were limited to 15 minutes, there was a chronic shortage of coffins and gravediggers and stores were forbidden to hold sales.
It seems that a mutated bird flu like the 1918 Spanish “bird flu” is particularly dangerous because human populations haven’t had the chance to develop a resistance to a virus that is normally limited to birds.
Worse still, effects of a bird flu outbreak are not just limited to disease and death. The outbreak of SARS in Hong Kong demonstrated in stark terms that commerce can be shut down in an area suffering cases of a deadly infectious disease.
If a wide scale bird flu pandemic were to break out in the western world we could see cities gripped with fear as Hong Kong was for that short period with SARS in 2003. Empty shops, empty streets and commerce grinding to a halt.
Dr Michael Osterholm, epidemiologist at the University of Minnesota called a potential bird flu pandemic “The single greatest risk to our world today.”
David Nabaro from UN health predicted from 5 to 150 million people could die worldwide if the bird flu virus mutates to a human to human virus.
Britain’s chief medical officer Sir Liam Donaldson said it wasn’t a question of IF a virus pandemic like the bird flu would hit human populations but WHEN.
Sir Liam also pointed out a vaccine for a human to human bird flu virus can’t be produced until the virus mutates and a bird flu vaccine may not be effective even after one can be produced.
The Asian flu pandemic of 1957 demonstrated how difficult it is to vaccinate against a rapidly mutating widespread influenza virus. Despite prior warning and despite a vaccine being developed quite rapidly the 1957 Asian flu spread to the United States where it killed 70,000 people.
Health authorities have difficulty producing and administering vaccines quickly enough to fight a virus. Also the rapidly mutating nature of influenza viruses means many vaccines provide very limited protection.
Anti-viral drugs are a more recent development in the fight against respiratory viruses like the bird flu and governments in the western world have begun stockpiling the anti-viral drug tamiflu as part of a bird flu protection plan. But in a bird flu pandemic tamiflu may not be as effective as authorities would hope.
In an unsettling development for health authorities tamilflu resistant strains of the bird flu are appearing. Recently a vietnamese girl was diagnosed with a tamiflu resistant strain of bird flu and in China the bird flu strain H5N1 is showing around 70% resistance to adamatane drugs like tamiflu.
Other anti-viral drugs like Relenza may be more effective if a bird flu pandemic strikes but until the bird flu mutates to a human to human virus we can’t be certain which drug - if any - will provide a pharmaceutical first line of bird flu defense.
On the lighter side of bird flu prevention sales of sauerkraut in 54 Twin Cities stores in the USA spiked 840% after an inconclusive and tiny study by Korean researchers found the bacteria in fermented greens might speed the recovery of chickens infected with the bird flu.
People more interested in a little more serious bird flu protection than fermented cabbage might heed the one consistent recommendation from health authorities across the world to reduce your chance of catching the bird flu virus.
Over 90% of respiratory viruses like the bird flu enter your body through contact between the mucous membranes of your eyes and nose and your fingernails. They hitchhike their way into your body after being picked up on your hands.
In a World Health Organization news conference WHO Global Influenza Program leader Klaus Stohr said frequent hand washing was the best way to avoid a viral infection including the bird flu.
Every government health authority in the western world recommends hand washing as a basic precaution to prevent respiratory viruses like the bird flu, SARS, influenza and the common cold.
But washing your hands effectively is not quite as simple as it may seem on the surface. Technique is important as is the soap you use.
Antibacterial soaps are NOT recommended for regular hand washing even for health professionals.
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Dec
21
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
peterhutch asked:
Yellow fever is a viral disease that has caused large epidemics in Africa and the Americas. It can be recognized from historic texts stretching back 400 years. Infection causes a wide spectrum of disease, from mild symptoms to severe illness and death. The “yellow” in the name is explained by the jaundice that affects some patients. Although an effective vaccine has been available for 60 years, the number of people infected over the last two decades has increased and yellow fever is now a serious public health issue again.
In mild cases, yellow fever causes fever, headache, nausea and vomiting. But yellow fever can become more serious, causing bleeding (hemorrhaging), heart, liver and kidney problems. Up to 50 percent of those with the more severe form of yellow fever die of the disease.
Symptoms of Yellow Fever
Many yellow fever infections are mild, but the disease can cause severe, life-threatening illness. Symptoms of severe infection are high fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, vomiting, and backache. After a brief recovery period, the infection can lead to shock, bleeding, and kidney and liver failure. Liver failure causes jaundice (yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes), which gives yellow fever its name.
Chest congestion develops in many patients, and abdominal pain and discomfort are common. The fever becomes constant. Improvement occurs in the third and fourth week in those without complications. About 10% of patients have recurrent symptoms (relapse) after feeling better for one to two weeks. Relapses are actually more common in individuals treated with antibiotics.
The illness may progress to liver and renal failure, and hemorrhagic symptoms and signs caused by thrombocytopenia and abnormal clotting and coagulation may occur. The case-fatality rate of yellow fever varies widely in different studies and may be different for Africa compared to South America, but is typically 20% or higher. Jaundice or other gross evidence of severe liver disease is associated with higher mortality rates.
The fever pattern is biphasic and is called a dromedary pattern, reflecting the 3 phases of the illness described above. In the acute phase, fevers may be high, with relative bradycardia. The saddle occurs during the secondary stage, when temperatures normalize. In the intoxication phase, fevers recur.
Infection ranges from asymptomatic (in 5 to 50% of cases) to a hemorrhagic fever with 50% mortality. Incubation lasts 3 to 6 days. Onset is sudden, with fever of 39 to 40° C, chills, headache, dizziness, and myalgias. The pulse, usually rapid initially, by the 2nd day becomes slow for the degree of fever (Faget’s sign). The face is flushed and the eyes are injected. Nausea, vomiting, constipation, severe prostration, restlessness, and irritability are common.
When a person becomes infected with the yellow fever virus, the virus begins to multiply. After three to six days, the symptoms of yellow fever can begin to appear. The period between becoming infected with virus and the appearance of yellow fever symptoms is called the incubation period.
The virus remains silent in the body during an incubation period of three to six days. There are then two disease phases. While some infections have no symptoms whatsoever, the first, “acute”, phase is normally characterized by fever, muscle pain (with prominent backache), headache, shivers, loss of appetite, nausea and/or vomiting. Often, the high fever is paradoxically associated with a slow pulse. After three to four days most patients improve and their symptoms disappear.
Kansieo.com
Yellow fever is a viral disease that has caused large epidemics in Africa and the Americas. It can be recognized from historic texts stretching back 400 years. Infection causes a wide spectrum of disease, from mild symptoms to severe illness and death. The “yellow” in the name is explained by the jaundice that affects some patients. Although an effective vaccine has been available for 60 years, the number of people infected over the last two decades has increased and yellow fever is now a serious public health issue again.
In mild cases, yellow fever causes fever, headache, nausea and vomiting. But yellow fever can become more serious, causing bleeding (hemorrhaging), heart, liver and kidney problems. Up to 50 percent of those with the more severe form of yellow fever die of the disease.
Symptoms of Yellow Fever
Many yellow fever infections are mild, but the disease can cause severe, life-threatening illness. Symptoms of severe infection are high fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, vomiting, and backache. After a brief recovery period, the infection can lead to shock, bleeding, and kidney and liver failure. Liver failure causes jaundice (yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes), which gives yellow fever its name.
Chest congestion develops in many patients, and abdominal pain and discomfort are common. The fever becomes constant. Improvement occurs in the third and fourth week in those without complications. About 10% of patients have recurrent symptoms (relapse) after feeling better for one to two weeks. Relapses are actually more common in individuals treated with antibiotics.
The illness may progress to liver and renal failure, and hemorrhagic symptoms and signs caused by thrombocytopenia and abnormal clotting and coagulation may occur. The case-fatality rate of yellow fever varies widely in different studies and may be different for Africa compared to South America, but is typically 20% or higher. Jaundice or other gross evidence of severe liver disease is associated with higher mortality rates.
The fever pattern is biphasic and is called a dromedary pattern, reflecting the 3 phases of the illness described above. In the acute phase, fevers may be high, with relative bradycardia. The saddle occurs during the secondary stage, when temperatures normalize. In the intoxication phase, fevers recur.
Infection ranges from asymptomatic (in 5 to 50% of cases) to a hemorrhagic fever with 50% mortality. Incubation lasts 3 to 6 days. Onset is sudden, with fever of 39 to 40° C, chills, headache, dizziness, and myalgias. The pulse, usually rapid initially, by the 2nd day becomes slow for the degree of fever (Faget’s sign). The face is flushed and the eyes are injected. Nausea, vomiting, constipation, severe prostration, restlessness, and irritability are common.
When a person becomes infected with the yellow fever virus, the virus begins to multiply. After three to six days, the symptoms of yellow fever can begin to appear. The period between becoming infected with virus and the appearance of yellow fever symptoms is called the incubation period.
The virus remains silent in the body during an incubation period of three to six days. There are then two disease phases. While some infections have no symptoms whatsoever, the first, “acute”, phase is normally characterized by fever, muscle pain (with prominent backache), headache, shivers, loss of appetite, nausea and/or vomiting. Often, the high fever is paradoxically associated with a slow pulse. After three to four days most patients improve and their symptoms disappear.
Kansieo.com
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Dec
20
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
peterhutch asked:
Relapsing fever is an acute febrile illness caused by spirochetes of the genus Borrelia. The high fevers of presenting patients spontaneously abate and then recur. This characteristic pattern of remission and relapse not only gives relapsing fever its name but also allows it to be differentiated clinically from other febrile illnesses as it has since the 1840s. Large outbreaks of louse-borne relapsing fever have occurred throughout the past century. These outbreaks usually occur following man-made breakdowns in public health, as typified by the epidemic following World War II that involved about 10 million people.
Sudden fever occurs within 2 weeks of infection. In LBRF, the fever usually lasts 3-6 days and is usually followed by a single, milder episode. In TRBF, multiple episodes of fever occur and each may last up to 3 days. Individuals may be free of fever for up to 2 weeks prior to a relapse. In both forms, the fever episode may end in “crisis,” which consists of shaking chills, followed by intense sweating, falling temperature, and low blood pressure. This stage may result in death in up to 10% of people.
Tick-borne relapsing fever, caused by Borrelia hermsii, is endemic in the higher elevations and coniferous forests of the western United States and southern British Columbia, Canada. Although many multicase outbreaks of relapsing fever associated with B. hermsii and its tick vector, Ornithodoros hermsi, have been reported, none has been documented in Montana. Patients usually become ill after they have slept in cabins infested with spirochete-infected ticks that feed quickly during the night. The illness has an incubation period of 4 to18 days and is characterized by recurring episodes of fever accompanied by a variety of other manifestations, including headache, myalgia, arthralgia, chills, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
Relapsing fever is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of the spirochaete, Borrelia. It can be transmitted by lice or ticks depending on the species and part of the world in which it occurs.Borrelia recurrentis is confined to the Horn of Africa and causes louse-borne, epidemic relapsing fever. Other species of Borrelia causing the endemic tick-borne variety occur in pockets in Africa, South America, and Asia. Relapsing fever does not occur in the UK. The risk to travellers of acquiring this disease is low, but travellers to endemic areas should be aware of the risk and to try and avoid being bitten by lice or ticks.
Most people who are infected get sick around 5-15 days after they are bitten by the tick. The symptoms may include a sudden fever, chills, headaches, and muscle or joint aches, and nausea; a rash may also occur. These symptoms continue for 2-9 days, then disappear. This cycle may continue for several weeks if the person is not treated. Relapsing Fever is easily treated with 1-2 weeks of antibiotics. Most people improve within 24 hours of starting antibiotics. Complications and death due to relapsing fever are rare.
Relapsing fever is a disease that is spread by 2 distinct vector families, namely the human body louse (Pediculus humanus) and soft-bodied ticks (Ornithodoros), and is caused by various species of Borrelia. The human body louse spreads Borrelia recurrentis infection. Tick-borne relapsing fever can be caused by a least 15 different Borrelia species. Louse-borne relapsing fever is caused by Borrelia recurrentis. Borrelia turicatae, Borrelia hermsii, Borrelia parkeri, and Borrelia duttonii may cause the tick-borne relapsing fever.
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Relapsing fever is an acute febrile illness caused by spirochetes of the genus Borrelia. The high fevers of presenting patients spontaneously abate and then recur. This characteristic pattern of remission and relapse not only gives relapsing fever its name but also allows it to be differentiated clinically from other febrile illnesses as it has since the 1840s. Large outbreaks of louse-borne relapsing fever have occurred throughout the past century. These outbreaks usually occur following man-made breakdowns in public health, as typified by the epidemic following World War II that involved about 10 million people.
Sudden fever occurs within 2 weeks of infection. In LBRF, the fever usually lasts 3-6 days and is usually followed by a single, milder episode. In TRBF, multiple episodes of fever occur and each may last up to 3 days. Individuals may be free of fever for up to 2 weeks prior to a relapse. In both forms, the fever episode may end in “crisis,” which consists of shaking chills, followed by intense sweating, falling temperature, and low blood pressure. This stage may result in death in up to 10% of people.
Tick-borne relapsing fever, caused by Borrelia hermsii, is endemic in the higher elevations and coniferous forests of the western United States and southern British Columbia, Canada. Although many multicase outbreaks of relapsing fever associated with B. hermsii and its tick vector, Ornithodoros hermsi, have been reported, none has been documented in Montana. Patients usually become ill after they have slept in cabins infested with spirochete-infected ticks that feed quickly during the night. The illness has an incubation period of 4 to18 days and is characterized by recurring episodes of fever accompanied by a variety of other manifestations, including headache, myalgia, arthralgia, chills, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
Relapsing fever is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of the spirochaete, Borrelia. It can be transmitted by lice or ticks depending on the species and part of the world in which it occurs.Borrelia recurrentis is confined to the Horn of Africa and causes louse-borne, epidemic relapsing fever. Other species of Borrelia causing the endemic tick-borne variety occur in pockets in Africa, South America, and Asia. Relapsing fever does not occur in the UK. The risk to travellers of acquiring this disease is low, but travellers to endemic areas should be aware of the risk and to try and avoid being bitten by lice or ticks.
Most people who are infected get sick around 5-15 days after they are bitten by the tick. The symptoms may include a sudden fever, chills, headaches, and muscle or joint aches, and nausea; a rash may also occur. These symptoms continue for 2-9 days, then disappear. This cycle may continue for several weeks if the person is not treated. Relapsing Fever is easily treated with 1-2 weeks of antibiotics. Most people improve within 24 hours of starting antibiotics. Complications and death due to relapsing fever are rare.
Relapsing fever is a disease that is spread by 2 distinct vector families, namely the human body louse (Pediculus humanus) and soft-bodied ticks (Ornithodoros), and is caused by various species of Borrelia. The human body louse spreads Borrelia recurrentis infection. Tick-borne relapsing fever can be caused by a least 15 different Borrelia species. Louse-borne relapsing fever is caused by Borrelia recurrentis. Borrelia turicatae, Borrelia hermsii, Borrelia parkeri, and Borrelia duttonii may cause the tick-borne relapsing fever.
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Dec
18
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
Richard Stooker asked:
How can you know whether your or a loved one has bird flu or just a case of ordinary flu? That’s not a simple question to answer.
Frankly, the only 100% way is to have body secretions tested by a World Health Organization (WHO) laboratory such as the U.S. Center for Disease Control in Atlanta Georgia. There are also such laboratories in Melbourne Australia and London England.
Obviously, they are not available to just any and every household and clinic with a flu patient. Right now there’re probably overwhelmed with testing new and suspected cases in Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa.
If you have good reason to believe that you have been exposed to bird flu, then you should go right away to a clinic or hospital to be tested and get the care you’ll need if your case becomes severe.
You have good reason to believe you have been exposed to bird flu if you live in or have travelled recently in SouthEast/South Asia, the Mid-East, Europe or Africa. Especially if you work with or around chickens or you have been around chickens. That is, to a chicken market or to a cock fight (where chicken blood and other fluids and sprayed through the air and onto the audience.) And also if you’ve eaten any undercooked chicken or eggs from those areas.
If you are in those areas and feeling very sick, get medical attention immediately even if you have not been exposed to chickens. You never know — when bird flu becomes highly contagious, somebody is going to be the first victim to have no exposure to chickens. I hope it’s not you, but I don’t know that.
Right now, those of us who live in North or South America have no direct exposure to bird flu. But of course that will eventually change. And it’s possible somebody could catch it from a migrating duck.
For example, near my apartment there’s a small municipal park with a nice pond stocked with fish . . . and ducks love it! In nice weather hundreds of people especially children are exposed to ducks and their manure.
The difficult thing is that bird flu is, first of all, influenza. It infects the cells lining your respiratory tract and therefore causes symptoms that are much the same as ordinary flu:
Fatigue Coughing Sneezing Muscle pain High fever Sore throat Conjunctivitis — pink eye
Bird flu can also cause:
Stomach ache Vomiting - including blood Severe headaches Bone aches Severe fatigue lasting longer than ordinary flu Stuffy nose Dizziness Diarrhea
During the first one or two days, bird flu will look exactly like ordinary flu.
The big difference — and danger — from its development. Bird flu tends to cause much more severe breathing problems than ordinary flu, plus triggers a much more severe counteraction by your body’s immune system.
This can result in a fever that’s high enough to be dangerous in itself.
If you or your loved one develops a high fever and/or difficulty breathing, definately see a doctor as soon as possible. Or any of the other symptoms associated with just bird flu. Whether you’ve got bird flu or not, you need professional medical care.
Last November 2005, a biotech company in Singapore named Rockeby announced that they’d come up with a quick test for bird flu.
According to WHO, their test is not proven yet. You can get more information on it from searching Google for Rockeby.
WHO has said they are working on a standard test for bird flu, but that has not come out yet. Until it does, they say the only recognized tests for bird flu must be done by their laboratories.
And of course, my final piece of advice should be obvious.
When there’s an all-out pandemic of contagious bird flu anywhere in the world and you start feeling sick with the flu — assume it is bird flu.
Treat yourself or your loved one accordingly. Get professional medical care.
Even if bird flu has not been reported in your country or your area, assume you’ve got it. A pandemic of contagious bird flu will make people ill in new areas before you hear about them on the news.
Besides, while ordinary flu is not dangerous for ordinary adults, it still kills 30-50,000 Americans every year and tens of thousands more people around the world — so it’s still a serious disease.
Whether you have bird flu or ordinary flu, treat yourself well, get proper medical care — and do not attempt to go to work or anyplace besides a doctor.
Whatever virus you’ve got, do us all a favor and don’t spread it around.
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How can you know whether your or a loved one has bird flu or just a case of ordinary flu? That’s not a simple question to answer.
Frankly, the only 100% way is to have body secretions tested by a World Health Organization (WHO) laboratory such as the U.S. Center for Disease Control in Atlanta Georgia. There are also such laboratories in Melbourne Australia and London England.
Obviously, they are not available to just any and every household and clinic with a flu patient. Right now there’re probably overwhelmed with testing new and suspected cases in Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa.
If you have good reason to believe that you have been exposed to bird flu, then you should go right away to a clinic or hospital to be tested and get the care you’ll need if your case becomes severe.
You have good reason to believe you have been exposed to bird flu if you live in or have travelled recently in SouthEast/South Asia, the Mid-East, Europe or Africa. Especially if you work with or around chickens or you have been around chickens. That is, to a chicken market or to a cock fight (where chicken blood and other fluids and sprayed through the air and onto the audience.) And also if you’ve eaten any undercooked chicken or eggs from those areas.
If you are in those areas and feeling very sick, get medical attention immediately even if you have not been exposed to chickens. You never know — when bird flu becomes highly contagious, somebody is going to be the first victim to have no exposure to chickens. I hope it’s not you, but I don’t know that.
Right now, those of us who live in North or South America have no direct exposure to bird flu. But of course that will eventually change. And it’s possible somebody could catch it from a migrating duck.
For example, near my apartment there’s a small municipal park with a nice pond stocked with fish . . . and ducks love it! In nice weather hundreds of people especially children are exposed to ducks and their manure.
The difficult thing is that bird flu is, first of all, influenza. It infects the cells lining your respiratory tract and therefore causes symptoms that are much the same as ordinary flu:
Fatigue Coughing Sneezing Muscle pain High fever Sore throat Conjunctivitis — pink eye
Bird flu can also cause:
Stomach ache Vomiting - including blood Severe headaches Bone aches Severe fatigue lasting longer than ordinary flu Stuffy nose Dizziness Diarrhea
During the first one or two days, bird flu will look exactly like ordinary flu.
The big difference — and danger — from its development. Bird flu tends to cause much more severe breathing problems than ordinary flu, plus triggers a much more severe counteraction by your body’s immune system.
This can result in a fever that’s high enough to be dangerous in itself.
If you or your loved one develops a high fever and/or difficulty breathing, definately see a doctor as soon as possible. Or any of the other symptoms associated with just bird flu. Whether you’ve got bird flu or not, you need professional medical care.
Last November 2005, a biotech company in Singapore named Rockeby announced that they’d come up with a quick test for bird flu.
According to WHO, their test is not proven yet. You can get more information on it from searching Google for Rockeby.
WHO has said they are working on a standard test for bird flu, but that has not come out yet. Until it does, they say the only recognized tests for bird flu must be done by their laboratories.
And of course, my final piece of advice should be obvious.
When there’s an all-out pandemic of contagious bird flu anywhere in the world and you start feeling sick with the flu — assume it is bird flu.
Treat yourself or your loved one accordingly. Get professional medical care.
Even if bird flu has not been reported in your country or your area, assume you’ve got it. A pandemic of contagious bird flu will make people ill in new areas before you hear about them on the news.
Besides, while ordinary flu is not dangerous for ordinary adults, it still kills 30-50,000 Americans every year and tens of thousands more people around the world — so it’s still a serious disease.
Whether you have bird flu or ordinary flu, treat yourself well, get proper medical care — and do not attempt to go to work or anyplace besides a doctor.
Whatever virus you’ve got, do us all a favor and don’t spread it around.
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Dec
17
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
Denny Bodoh asked:
Cold sore treatment is an urgent need for millions of oral herpes victims today. This need is quite obvious when you look for cold sore treatment options at the store. There are a lot of cold sore remedy choices.
For the most part, these over-the-counter cold sore treatment products are primary useful as comfort treatments only. Cold sores are plain miserable so comfort is the number one priority.
But despite some wild claims, you will not find these to reduce the duration time of your cold sores. Do not expect any more than comfort.
Below I have listed several time-proven cold sore treatment methods that really work. These can provide blessed comfort and heal your cold sores up to 50% faster. Try them.
1. THROW COLD WATER ON THE VIRUS
A great trick for discouraging the herpes simplex virus when it first starts the replicating process is to apply ice or another cold object to the target area. Use ice at the first sensation of itching or tingling.
Ice reduces swelling, heat and pain very effectively. If used early and often, it can stop cold sores from developing - or at least reduce the damage and healing time. Do not use ice after the sore opens up. Then you must use heat.
2. HONEY - A SWEET COLD SORE TREATMENT
Did you know honey does not spoil? It is a super anti-virus, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal. Yes - many cold sore victims use honey as a potent cold sore treatment. What a sweet way to heal your cold sores fast.
Apply to the sore even before it bursts open. Once your sore opens up, cleanse with peroxide first, then apply. You will have to apply often as the weeping fluid will wash it away. Use a q-tip to apply it. Keep your fingers out.
3. CALCIUM - THE VIRUS STOPPER
Most people who get cold sores have an acid pH balance and are low in calcium. Calcium is the main mineral your body uses to keep you in a healthy alkaline zone. Fact is, the herpes simplex virus hates an alkaline environment.
Taking calcium supplements is an excellent cold sore treatment for both quick healing and prevention. Make sure that for every 1000 milligrams of calcium, you also take 400 milligrams of magnesium. These two work together for better absorption.
Also, try breaking the capsule open and mixing the powder with honey - making a paste. Apply this to your wound - you may be surprised how quickly it heals.
4. OREGANO OIL - HERPES DOESN’T LIKE THE TASTE
The oil from the oregano herb is quite a good cold sore treatment - both internally and externally. You can buy oregano oil in gel caps at the vitamin store. Users often take it for colds, flu and other virus attacks - such as the herpes simplex virus.
It will not remove the virus from your body (nothing will that we know of). But it will tend to deactivate the virus and send it back into hibernation.
For external application, just cut open one of the gel caps, squeeze out the oil onto a q-tip and apply directly to your cold sores. When your sore is scabbed, mix with a little olive oil first. This will help keep the scab soft.
5. B AND C VITAMIN THERAPY
Folks with cold sores normally test quite low in B and C vitamins - especially B12. You can find them in a good stress formula at the vitamin store.
You will want to get about 50 to 100 milligrams of the major B vitamins (like B6), at least 1000 milligrams of vitamin C and around 500 micrograms of B12. Some have suggested up to 3000 milligrams or more of vitamin C.
Perhaps your daily multi-vitamin has high levels of these vitamins already. That is good but it might be wise to take an additional stress formula during the outbreak.
In summary, please note that these are just a few of many powerful cold sore treatment options you can use. Keep searching and trying new ways of treating a cold sore. Not every one of these remedies will work for every person.
Also, it is important to keep in mind that an excellent cold sore treatment plan will likely include the combination of two or more of these cold sore remedy methods. Try these and others.
Combine as you wish and discover the best cold sore treatment for your personal needs.
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Cold sore treatment is an urgent need for millions of oral herpes victims today. This need is quite obvious when you look for cold sore treatment options at the store. There are a lot of cold sore remedy choices.
For the most part, these over-the-counter cold sore treatment products are primary useful as comfort treatments only. Cold sores are plain miserable so comfort is the number one priority.
But despite some wild claims, you will not find these to reduce the duration time of your cold sores. Do not expect any more than comfort.
Below I have listed several time-proven cold sore treatment methods that really work. These can provide blessed comfort and heal your cold sores up to 50% faster. Try them.
1. THROW COLD WATER ON THE VIRUS
A great trick for discouraging the herpes simplex virus when it first starts the replicating process is to apply ice or another cold object to the target area. Use ice at the first sensation of itching or tingling.
Ice reduces swelling, heat and pain very effectively. If used early and often, it can stop cold sores from developing - or at least reduce the damage and healing time. Do not use ice after the sore opens up. Then you must use heat.
2. HONEY - A SWEET COLD SORE TREATMENT
Did you know honey does not spoil? It is a super anti-virus, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal. Yes - many cold sore victims use honey as a potent cold sore treatment. What a sweet way to heal your cold sores fast.
Apply to the sore even before it bursts open. Once your sore opens up, cleanse with peroxide first, then apply. You will have to apply often as the weeping fluid will wash it away. Use a q-tip to apply it. Keep your fingers out.
3. CALCIUM - THE VIRUS STOPPER
Most people who get cold sores have an acid pH balance and are low in calcium. Calcium is the main mineral your body uses to keep you in a healthy alkaline zone. Fact is, the herpes simplex virus hates an alkaline environment.
Taking calcium supplements is an excellent cold sore treatment for both quick healing and prevention. Make sure that for every 1000 milligrams of calcium, you also take 400 milligrams of magnesium. These two work together for better absorption.
Also, try breaking the capsule open and mixing the powder with honey - making a paste. Apply this to your wound - you may be surprised how quickly it heals.
4. OREGANO OIL - HERPES DOESN’T LIKE THE TASTE
The oil from the oregano herb is quite a good cold sore treatment - both internally and externally. You can buy oregano oil in gel caps at the vitamin store. Users often take it for colds, flu and other virus attacks - such as the herpes simplex virus.
It will not remove the virus from your body (nothing will that we know of). But it will tend to deactivate the virus and send it back into hibernation.
For external application, just cut open one of the gel caps, squeeze out the oil onto a q-tip and apply directly to your cold sores. When your sore is scabbed, mix with a little olive oil first. This will help keep the scab soft.
5. B AND C VITAMIN THERAPY
Folks with cold sores normally test quite low in B and C vitamins - especially B12. You can find them in a good stress formula at the vitamin store.
You will want to get about 50 to 100 milligrams of the major B vitamins (like B6), at least 1000 milligrams of vitamin C and around 500 micrograms of B12. Some have suggested up to 3000 milligrams or more of vitamin C.
Perhaps your daily multi-vitamin has high levels of these vitamins already. That is good but it might be wise to take an additional stress formula during the outbreak.
In summary, please note that these are just a few of many powerful cold sore treatment options you can use. Keep searching and trying new ways of treating a cold sore. Not every one of these remedies will work for every person.
Also, it is important to keep in mind that an excellent cold sore treatment plan will likely include the combination of two or more of these cold sore remedy methods. Try these and others.
Combine as you wish and discover the best cold sore treatment for your personal needs.
Caffeinated Content - Members-Only Content for WordPress
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Dec
16
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
Gray Rollins asked:
Whether or not to get a flu shot is one of those questions that is debated every year around the same time that Halloween decorations start showing up on people’s front lawns. People will discuss the pros and cons of getting the flu shot on the bus, on the subway, on the street, at work, while having lunch, and anywhere else where two or more people congregate. The debate starts to become part of news stories too. Some people think a flu shot is necessary and will do their best to make sure they receive one. Other people think it is a waste of time and money along with being a poke in the arm that they don’t need.
Whether or not you get a flu shot is a personal decision but information from the Centers For Disease Control and Protection recommend that certain groups of high risk individuals receive a flu vaccination every year. Those people include:
- People who are 65 years old or older and anyone who lives in a nursing home
- People with chronic heart or lung conditions that are 6 months or older
- People with diabetes, chronic kidney disease, a compromised immune system, or anyone who needs regular medical care that is 6 months or older
- Children from 6 months to 18 years that are on long term aspirin therapy and all children who are 6 months to 23 months old
- Women who will be pregnant during the flu season
- People with a condition that has the possibility of compromising their respiratory function such as a brain injury, brain disease, spinal cord injury, seizure disorders and other nerve or muscle disorders that make it difficult for a person to breathe or swallow
My mother is in the high risk category. She’s over 65 years old and is on kidney dialysis. Everyone at her dialysis center was offered a flu shot as a service so that everyone at the center was protected. The health care professionals working at the center also got flu shots.
It is also recommended that people from 50 to 64 years of age receive a flu shot even though this age group isn’t considered high risk.
The flu shot is also recommended for people who routinely come in close contact with people in the high risk group, such as the health care professionals who work at my mother’s dialysis center. Because I’m a caregiver for my mother it was recommended that I get a flu shot too. Although I’m neither a strong believer in getting or not getting a flu shot I got one just in case it could prevent me from getting it and passing it on to my mother.
Other members of my family have differing opinions on whether or not to get the flu shot although, unlike myself, the rest of my family seems to have a strong opinion one way or the other. Although both my mother and father receive the flu shot without fail every year and strongly believe in getting it, my aunt never gets a flu shot. She’s 82 years old and is doing fine. My daughter lives in a college dorm. The college recommends the flu shot for all students living in dorms (not a bad idea in my mind because a college dorm can be a hotbed of germs or it at least seems that way when I look into some of the very messy dorm rooms) but my daughter doesn’t get the flu shot and hasn’t come down with the flu during the three years she’s lived in the dorm. My in-laws both get a flu shot every year, but my husband’s grandparents do not. And my oldest son is adamant that a person should never get a flu shot (http://www.microflu.com/fluvaccinerisksandbenefits).
If you do get a flu shot the best time to receive it is from the latter part of September through the middle of November, although getting a flu shot almost any time during the season will still give a person some protection from the flu or influenza. But the flu shot doesn’t give a person protection or effectiveness against the flu for about two weeks after receiving it. And in order to receive the maximum protection from the flu a person needs to get a flu shot every year.
Flu season runs from about November through April although January to February seems to be the peak time of the flu season. That’s when you’ll start to hear reports on the news about what parts of the United States are reporting large numbers of flu cases.
What is in a flu shot? It varies each year. In the United States the Public Health Service determines which three strains of the flu are most likely to spread and be a problem during the upcoming flu season. Purified viruses of those three strains are grown in egg cultures that are noninfectious and inactive. Those purified viruses are the flu shot or flu vaccination. The shot stimulates an immune reaction which is said to give a person up to a 70% protection from those strains of the flu.
Why do some health care professionals feel that receiving a flu shot is so important? One reason is that the flu (influenza) is very contagious. It can also be very deadly. It is the fifth leading cause of death among the elderly killing as many as 70,000 people a year.
Whether or not you receive a flu shot is something only you can decide. Consider the pros and cons and decide what is right for you.
Disclaimer: this article is for educational purposes only and is not intended to diagnose or treat illness and disease; nor is it intended as dispensation of medical advice.
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Whether or not to get a flu shot is one of those questions that is debated every year around the same time that Halloween decorations start showing up on people’s front lawns. People will discuss the pros and cons of getting the flu shot on the bus, on the subway, on the street, at work, while having lunch, and anywhere else where two or more people congregate. The debate starts to become part of news stories too. Some people think a flu shot is necessary and will do their best to make sure they receive one. Other people think it is a waste of time and money along with being a poke in the arm that they don’t need.
Whether or not you get a flu shot is a personal decision but information from the Centers For Disease Control and Protection recommend that certain groups of high risk individuals receive a flu vaccination every year. Those people include:
- People who are 65 years old or older and anyone who lives in a nursing home
- People with chronic heart or lung conditions that are 6 months or older
- People with diabetes, chronic kidney disease, a compromised immune system, or anyone who needs regular medical care that is 6 months or older
- Children from 6 months to 18 years that are on long term aspirin therapy and all children who are 6 months to 23 months old
- Women who will be pregnant during the flu season
- People with a condition that has the possibility of compromising their respiratory function such as a brain injury, brain disease, spinal cord injury, seizure disorders and other nerve or muscle disorders that make it difficult for a person to breathe or swallow
My mother is in the high risk category. She’s over 65 years old and is on kidney dialysis. Everyone at her dialysis center was offered a flu shot as a service so that everyone at the center was protected. The health care professionals working at the center also got flu shots.
It is also recommended that people from 50 to 64 years of age receive a flu shot even though this age group isn’t considered high risk.
The flu shot is also recommended for people who routinely come in close contact with people in the high risk group, such as the health care professionals who work at my mother’s dialysis center. Because I’m a caregiver for my mother it was recommended that I get a flu shot too. Although I’m neither a strong believer in getting or not getting a flu shot I got one just in case it could prevent me from getting it and passing it on to my mother.
Other members of my family have differing opinions on whether or not to get the flu shot although, unlike myself, the rest of my family seems to have a strong opinion one way or the other. Although both my mother and father receive the flu shot without fail every year and strongly believe in getting it, my aunt never gets a flu shot. She’s 82 years old and is doing fine. My daughter lives in a college dorm. The college recommends the flu shot for all students living in dorms (not a bad idea in my mind because a college dorm can be a hotbed of germs or it at least seems that way when I look into some of the very messy dorm rooms) but my daughter doesn’t get the flu shot and hasn’t come down with the flu during the three years she’s lived in the dorm. My in-laws both get a flu shot every year, but my husband’s grandparents do not. And my oldest son is adamant that a person should never get a flu shot (http://www.microflu.com/fluvaccinerisksandbenefits).
If you do get a flu shot the best time to receive it is from the latter part of September through the middle of November, although getting a flu shot almost any time during the season will still give a person some protection from the flu or influenza. But the flu shot doesn’t give a person protection or effectiveness against the flu for about two weeks after receiving it. And in order to receive the maximum protection from the flu a person needs to get a flu shot every year.
Flu season runs from about November through April although January to February seems to be the peak time of the flu season. That’s when you’ll start to hear reports on the news about what parts of the United States are reporting large numbers of flu cases.
What is in a flu shot? It varies each year. In the United States the Public Health Service determines which three strains of the flu are most likely to spread and be a problem during the upcoming flu season. Purified viruses of those three strains are grown in egg cultures that are noninfectious and inactive. Those purified viruses are the flu shot or flu vaccination. The shot stimulates an immune reaction which is said to give a person up to a 70% protection from those strains of the flu.
Why do some health care professionals feel that receiving a flu shot is so important? One reason is that the flu (influenza) is very contagious. It can also be very deadly. It is the fifth leading cause of death among the elderly killing as many as 70,000 people a year.
Whether or not you receive a flu shot is something only you can decide. Consider the pros and cons and decide what is right for you.
Disclaimer: this article is for educational purposes only and is not intended to diagnose or treat illness and disease; nor is it intended as dispensation of medical advice.
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Dec
11
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
Groshan Fabiola asked:
It is well known that Asian countries are affected by avian (bird) flu. The highly contagious virus spreads rapidly among the poultry leading to a quick death. More than that, it was noticed that the virus might affect humans too.
Specialists are concerned about the spreading of the virus among the people. Their theory says that the bird flu virus could merge with a human flu virus and can lead to highly infectious, rapidly fatal flu virus.
For this reason most of the Asian countries are culling the poultry stocks to prevent a further spread of the virus.
Avian flu is a health problem that mostly affects the birds. It is used to describe the influenza viruses. Nowadays 15 subtypes of influenza A viruses are known to possibly spread among the bird populations.
From all these types of avian flu only a few may lead to a highly contagious and rapidly fatal disease. These dangerous viruses are known as highly pathogenic avian influenza. These viruses are responsible for the worries of the specialists because it is believed that they are the ones that may affect humans.
In the moment when it was certitude that avian flu infects humans, in 1997, the specialists began to ask themselves questions. They believed that the avian flu virus could merge with a human flu virus and create a new type of virus that could be contagious as human flu virus, helping to spread easily among humans and deadly as the bird flu virus. The great concern was about another flu pandemic.
The flu pandemic represents a highly infectious form of a flu virus that spreads rapidly and affects a large number of persons. For example we can talk about the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919 which caused more than 40 million deaths all over the world.
It is believed that avian flu virus could merge with a human flu virus only if the person gets in contact with birds that have the bird flu virus. If the person already has flu there is a chance for the viruses to merge inside the human body. If the new virus has the avian flu’s genes that make it rapidly fatal and the human flu’s genes that allow it to be passed from person to person, it may lead to a flu pandemic.
There is no evidence about this fact presented earlier so we might say that a highly infectious flu virus for humans has not been produced yet.
So, if you want to find out more about bird flu prevention or even about symptoms of bird flu please click this link http://www.bird-flu-info-center.com/
Kansieo.com
It is well known that Asian countries are affected by avian (bird) flu. The highly contagious virus spreads rapidly among the poultry leading to a quick death. More than that, it was noticed that the virus might affect humans too.
Specialists are concerned about the spreading of the virus among the people. Their theory says that the bird flu virus could merge with a human flu virus and can lead to highly infectious, rapidly fatal flu virus.
For this reason most of the Asian countries are culling the poultry stocks to prevent a further spread of the virus.
Avian flu is a health problem that mostly affects the birds. It is used to describe the influenza viruses. Nowadays 15 subtypes of influenza A viruses are known to possibly spread among the bird populations.
From all these types of avian flu only a few may lead to a highly contagious and rapidly fatal disease. These dangerous viruses are known as highly pathogenic avian influenza. These viruses are responsible for the worries of the specialists because it is believed that they are the ones that may affect humans.
In the moment when it was certitude that avian flu infects humans, in 1997, the specialists began to ask themselves questions. They believed that the avian flu virus could merge with a human flu virus and create a new type of virus that could be contagious as human flu virus, helping to spread easily among humans and deadly as the bird flu virus. The great concern was about another flu pandemic.
The flu pandemic represents a highly infectious form of a flu virus that spreads rapidly and affects a large number of persons. For example we can talk about the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919 which caused more than 40 million deaths all over the world.
It is believed that avian flu virus could merge with a human flu virus only if the person gets in contact with birds that have the bird flu virus. If the person already has flu there is a chance for the viruses to merge inside the human body. If the new virus has the avian flu’s genes that make it rapidly fatal and the human flu’s genes that allow it to be passed from person to person, it may lead to a flu pandemic.
There is no evidence about this fact presented earlier so we might say that a highly infectious flu virus for humans has not been produced yet.
So, if you want to find out more about bird flu prevention or even about symptoms of bird flu please click this link http://www.bird-flu-info-center.com/
Kansieo.com
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Dec
05
Filed Under (Health) by drfever
peterhutch asked:
Yellow fever can be recognized from historic texts stretching back 400 years. Infection causes a wide spectrum of disease, from mild symptoms to severe illness and death. The “yellow” in the name is explained by the jaundice that affects some patients, causing yellow eyes and yellow skin.
Yellow fever is difficult to recognize, especially during the early stages. It can easily be confused with malaria, typhoid, rickettsial diseases, haemorrhagic viral fevers (e.g. Lassa), arboviral infections (e.g. dengue), leptospirosis, viral hepatitis and poisoning (e.g. carbon tetrachloride). A laboratory analysis is required to confirm a suspect case. Blood tests (serology assays) can detect yellow fever antibodies that are produced in response to the infection. Several other techniques are used to identify the virus itself in blood specimens or liver tissue collected after death. These tests require highly trained laboratory staff using specialized equipment and materials.
Yellow fever causes epidemics that can affect 20% of the population. When epidemics occur in unvaccinated populations, case-fatality rates may exceed 50%. No treatment beyond supportive care exists. Yellow fever is common in West and Central Africa and in parts of South America. Periodic epidemics in Africa lead to hundreds of thousands of cases. Yellow fever is a very rare cause of illness in U.S. travelers.
Yellow fever transmission predominately occurs in areas of sub-Saharan Africa and South America 15° north and 10° south of the equator. It has never been documented in Asia. Yellow fever epidemics were dominant in Africa from 1986-1991, with close to 20,000 cases and 6000 deaths. This is considered to be grossly underestimated because of underreporting. These epidemics commonly include 30-1000 cases and have fatality ratios of 20-50%. In areas of West Africa, 200,000 endemic cases may occur annually.
The disease occurs only in sub-Saharan Africa and tropical South America (see Maps 4-15 and 4-16), where it is endemic and intermittently epidemic (see Table 4-23 for a list of countries in the endemic zone). Areas considered endemic for yellow fever have evidence of yellow fever transmission to humans and/or its potential, due to the presence of both a competent vector and YFV in nonhuman primates. In Africa, where most cases are reported, a variety of mosquitoes transmit the virus. The case-fatality rate of yellow fever in Africa is highly variable but approximates 20%. Infants and children are at greatest risk of severe disease.
Two live, attenuated yellow fever vaccines, strains 17D-204 and 17DD, were derived in parallel in the 1930s. Historical data suggest that these “17D vaccines”have identical safety and immunogenicity profiles. Despite a marked reduction in the world-wide incidence of yellow fever in the last five decades due to the extensive use of 17D vaccines and mosquito eradication programs, at least seven tropical South American countries (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, and Venezuela) and much of sub-Saharan Africa currently experience yellow fever epidemics. However, the actual areas of yellow fever virus activity far exceed the infected zones officially reported for epidemics.
Yellow fever decimated American troop populations in the Spanish-American War, prompting the appointment of a Yellow Fever Commission. Dr. Walter Reed (for whom the famous army hospital is named) was named to head it. In September 1900, his commission concluded the virus vector was the mosquito and that yellow fever could be experimentally transmitted from one human via infected blood. Without an animal model, the studies relied on human volunteers. Although the commission was actively attempting to infect humans with potentially lethal doses of virus, they were pioneers in the first forms of informed consent.
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Yellow fever can be recognized from historic texts stretching back 400 years. Infection causes a wide spectrum of disease, from mild symptoms to severe illness and death. The “yellow” in the name is explained by the jaundice that affects some patients, causing yellow eyes and yellow skin.
Yellow fever is difficult to recognize, especially during the early stages. It can easily be confused with malaria, typhoid, rickettsial diseases, haemorrhagic viral fevers (e.g. Lassa), arboviral infections (e.g. dengue), leptospirosis, viral hepatitis and poisoning (e.g. carbon tetrachloride). A laboratory analysis is required to confirm a suspect case. Blood tests (serology assays) can detect yellow fever antibodies that are produced in response to the infection. Several other techniques are used to identify the virus itself in blood specimens or liver tissue collected after death. These tests require highly trained laboratory staff using specialized equipment and materials.
Yellow fever causes epidemics that can affect 20% of the population. When epidemics occur in unvaccinated populations, case-fatality rates may exceed 50%. No treatment beyond supportive care exists. Yellow fever is common in West and Central Africa and in parts of South America. Periodic epidemics in Africa lead to hundreds of thousands of cases. Yellow fever is a very rare cause of illness in U.S. travelers.
Yellow fever transmission predominately occurs in areas of sub-Saharan Africa and South America 15° north and 10° south of the equator. It has never been documented in Asia. Yellow fever epidemics were dominant in Africa from 1986-1991, with close to 20,000 cases and 6000 deaths. This is considered to be grossly underestimated because of underreporting. These epidemics commonly include 30-1000 cases and have fatality ratios of 20-50%. In areas of West Africa, 200,000 endemic cases may occur annually.
The disease occurs only in sub-Saharan Africa and tropical South America (see Maps 4-15 and 4-16), where it is endemic and intermittently epidemic (see Table 4-23 for a list of countries in the endemic zone). Areas considered endemic for yellow fever have evidence of yellow fever transmission to humans and/or its potential, due to the presence of both a competent vector and YFV in nonhuman primates. In Africa, where most cases are reported, a variety of mosquitoes transmit the virus. The case-fatality rate of yellow fever in Africa is highly variable but approximates 20%. Infants and children are at greatest risk of severe disease.
Two live, attenuated yellow fever vaccines, strains 17D-204 and 17DD, were derived in parallel in the 1930s. Historical data suggest that these “17D vaccines”have identical safety and immunogenicity profiles. Despite a marked reduction in the world-wide incidence of yellow fever in the last five decades due to the extensive use of 17D vaccines and mosquito eradication programs, at least seven tropical South American countries (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, and Venezuela) and much of sub-Saharan Africa currently experience yellow fever epidemics. However, the actual areas of yellow fever virus activity far exceed the infected zones officially reported for epidemics.
Yellow fever decimated American troop populations in the Spanish-American War, prompting the appointment of a Yellow Fever Commission. Dr. Walter Reed (for whom the famous army hospital is named) was named to head it. In September 1900, his commission concluded the virus vector was the mosquito and that yellow fever could be experimentally transmitted from one human via infected blood. Without an animal model, the studies relied on human volunteers. Although the commission was actively attempting to infect humans with potentially lethal doses of virus, they were pioneers in the first forms of informed consent.
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